Топики по английскому языку для студентов и школьников

British traditional holidays

Great Britain is famous for its old traditions. Some of them existed in ancient times and survived through centuries. Some of them appeared when Christianity came to British isles. Speaking about religious holidays one can’t but mention Easter, Pancake Day and Mother’s Day. The dates of these holidays aren’t strict, they depend on the date of Easter, that varies every year.

Pancake day is the popular name for the Shrove Tuesday, the day before the first day of Lent. In the middle ages people on that day made merry and ate pancakes. The ingredients of pancakes are all forbidden by Church during Lent, that is why they have to be used the day before. The most common form of celebrating this day in the old times was the all town ball game or tug-of-war, in which everyone was tearing here and there, trying to get the ball or rope into their part of the city. Today the only custom, that is observed throughout Britain is pancake eating.

For the English people the best-known name for the fourth in Lent Sunday is Mothering Sunday or Mother’s Day. For 3 centuries this day has been a day of small family gatherings when absent sons and daughters return to their homes. Gifts are made to mothers by children of all ages. Flowers and cakes are still traditional gifts. Violets and primroses are most popular flowers. Sometimes the whole family goes to church and then there is a special dinner at which roast lamb, rice-pudding and home-made wines and served.

Easter is one of the most important holidays in Christianity. In England it’s a time for giving and receiving presents, mostly Easter eggs. We can say that the egg is the most popular emblem of Easter, but spring-time flowers are also used to stress the nature’s awakening. Nowadays there are a lot of chocolate Easter eggs, having some small gifts inside. But a real hard-boiled egg, decorated and painted in bright colours, still appears on breakfast tables on Ester Day, or it’s hidden in the house or garden for children to finny. In egg that is boiled really hard will last for years. Egg-rolling is a traditional Easter pastime. You roll the eggs down a slope until they are cracked and broken, after they are eaten up.

Christmas Day , December 25,is probably the most popular holiday in Great Britan. It is a family holiday. Traditionally all relatives and friends give each other presents. So before Christmas all the department stores and shops are crowded, everybody is choosing a present. In general, people get prepared for this holiday very carefully. They decorate their houses in the traditional way, that is the Christmas trees are set up in houses, in the streets and churches. The Christmas trees are always decorated with fairy lights, angels and small toys. In addition litlle packets with nuts, candies and special biscuits are hung on the tree. Presents are put around the tree and artificial ''frost'' is scattered over the branches.

The Germans are believed to be the first to use the Christmas tree in their celebrations, and Martin Luther was the first to place a star on the top of the tree. This star represent the star that appeared over the stable in which Christ was born.

In Great Britain the Christmas tree became popular when Queen Victoria used it.

Besides the Christmas tree, holly and mistletoe are used to decorate the house.

Branches of holly are put up behind pictures and mistletoe is hung over doors, so the young people have a chance to kiss the girls under it, plucking each time a red berry from the mistletoe. It is said that the girl who was not kissed under it at Christmas would not get married that year.

On the eve of the Christmas children hang their stockings so that Santa Claus could put presents into them : oranges, sweets, nuts and if the child didn't behave properly Santa Clause can put there a piece of coal as punishment.

Santa Claus got his name from a man known as St.Nickolas who lived in Asia in the fourth century. He gave his wealth to the poor and often to children. After he died the Dutch brought

this legend to colonial America. Soon the Dutch name Sinter Kluas became Santa Claus.

Carol singing is an essential part of Christmas. No church or school is without its carol service. Carols may be traditional or by known composers they can express different feelings. Carols appeared in Christmas history about the fifteenth century.

Usually children come around in the evening to the front doors and start singing carols and the people living in these houses give children candies, nuts, pies and so on, to thank them for carol singing.

A typical Christmas lunch includes turkey with cranberry sauce and pudding. Every young woman in each household helps to stir the Christmas pudding if she wishes to be married that year.

Usually a coin or two are hidden inside the pudding and part of the fun is to see who finds it.

After the lunch they go to the sitting room to listen to the Christmas speech of the Queen, shown on TV.

So Christmas is a merry family holiday for all the people of Great Britain.

Climate and Weather in Great Britain

Weather is not the same as climate. The weather at a place is the state of the atmosphere there at a given time or over a short period. The weather of the British Isles is greatly variable.

The climate of a place or region, on the other hand, represents the average weather conditions over a long period of time.

The climate of any place results from the interaction of a number of determining factors, of which the most important are latitude, distance from the sea, relief and the direction of the prevailing winds.

The geographical position of the British Isles within latitudes 50 ^o to 60 ^o N is a basic factor in determining the main characteristics of the climate. Temperature, the most important climatic element, depends not only on the angle at which the sun’s rays strike the earth’s surface, but also on the duration of daylight. The length of day at London ranges from 16 hours 35 minutes on June to 7 hours 50 minutes on 21 December. British latitudes form the temperate nature of the British climate, for the sun is never directly overhead as in the tropical areas.

Britain’s climate is dominated by the influence of the sea. It is much milder than that in any other country in the same latitudes. This is due partly to the presence of the North Atlantic Drift, or the Gulf Stream, and partly to the fact that north-west Europe lies in a predominantly westerly wind-belt. This means that marine influences warm the land in winter and cool in summer. This moderating effect of the sea is in fact, the cause of the relatively small seasonal contrasts experienced in Britain.

The moderating effect of the ocean on air temperature is also stronger in winter than in summer. When the surface water is cooler than the air above it – as frequently happens during the summer months – the air tends to lose its heat to the water. The lowest layers of air are chilled and become denser by contradiction, and the chilled air tends to remain at low levels. The surface water expands because it is warmed, and remains on the surface of the ocean. Unless the air is turbulent, little of it can be cooled, for little heat is exchanged.

Opposite conditions apply in winter. The air in winter is likely to be cooler than the surface water, so that the heat passes from water to air. Air at low levels is warmed and expands and rises, carrying oceanic heat with it, while the chilled surface water contracts and sinks, to be replaced by unchilled water from below. This convectional overturning both of water and of air leads to a vigorous exchange of heat.

The prevailing winds in the British Isles are westerlies. They are extremely moist, as a result of their long passage over warm waters of the North Atlantic. On their arrival to Britain, the winds are forced upwards, and as a result large-scale condensation takes place, clouds form and precipitation follows, especially over the mountainous areas.

North and north-west winds often bring heavy falls of snow to north Britain during late October and November, but they are usually short-lived. Continental winds from the east sometimes reach the British Isles in summer as a warm, dry air-stream, but they are more frequently experienced in winter when they cross the north sea and bring cold, continental-type weather to eastern and inland districts of Great Britain.

Relief is the most important factor controlling the distribution of temperature and precipitation within Britain. The actual temperatures experienced in the hilly and mountainous parts are considerably lower than those in the lowlands. The effect of relief on precipitation is even more striking. Average annual rainfall in Britain is about 1,100 mm. But the geographical distribution of rainfall is largely determined by topography. The mountainous areas of the west and north have more rainfall than the lowlands of the south and east. The western Scottish Highlands, the Lake District (the Cumbrian mountains), Welsh uplands and parts of Devon and Cornwall in the south-west receive more than 2,000 mm of rainfall each year.

In contrast, the eastern lowlands, lying in a rain-shadow area, are much drier and usually receive little precipitation. Much of eastern and south-eastern England (including London) receive less than 700 mm each year, and snow falls on only 15 to 18 days on the average.

Rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year, although March to June are the driest months and October to January are the wettest.

Ireland is in the rather a different category, for here the rain-bearing winds have not been deprived of their moisture, and much of the Irish plain receives up to 1,200 mm of rainfall per year, usually in the form of steady and prolonged drizzle. Snow, on the other hand, is rare, owing to the warming effects of the Gulf Stream. The combined influences of the sea and prevailing winds are equally evident in the general pattern of rainfall over the country.

Because of the North Atlantic Drift and predominantly maritime air masses that reach the British Isles from the west, the range in temperature throughout the year is never very great. The annual mean temperature in England and Wales is about 10 ^o C , in Scotland and Northern Ireland about 9 ^o C. July and August are the warmest months of the year, and January and February the coldest.

The mean winter temperature in the north is 3 ^O C,the mean summer temperature 12 ^o C. The corresponding figures for the south are 5 ^o C and 16 ^o C. The mean January temperature for London is 4 ^o C, and the mean July temperature 17 ^o C.

During a normal summer the temperature may occasionally rise above 30 ^o C in the south. Minimum temperatures of –10 ^o C may occur on a still clear winter’s night in inland areas.

The distribution of sunshine shows a general decrease from south to north – the south has much longer periods of sunshine than the north.

It is frequently said that Great Britain does not experience climate, but only weather. This statement suggests that there is such a day-to-day variation in temperature, rainfall, wind direction, wind speed and sunshine that the “average weather conditions”, there is usually no very great variation from year to year or between corresponding seasons of different years.

No place in Britain is more than 120 km from the sea. But although the British are crowded very closely in a very small country, there is one respect in which they are very fortunate. This is their climate. Perhaps, this is a surprising statement because almost everyone has heard how annoying the weather usually is in England. Because of the frequent clouds and the moisture that hangs in the air even on fairly clear days, England has less sunshine than most countries, and the sunlight is weaker then in other places where the air is dry and clear. What is worse, sunshine rarely lasts long enough for a person to have time to enjoy it. The weather changes constantly. No ordinary person can guess from one day to another which season he will find himself in when he wakes in the morning. Moreover, a day in January may be as warm as a warm day in July and a day in July may be as cold as the coldest in January.

But although the English weather is more unreliable than any weather in the world, the English climate – average weather – is a good one. English winters are seldom very cold and the summers are seldom hot. Men ride to work on bicycles all through the year. Along the south coast English gardens even contain occasional palm trees.

The most remarkable feature of English weather, the London fog, has as exaggerated reputation. What makes fog thick in big industrial areas is not so much the moisture in the air as the soot from millions of coal fires. Such smogs (smoke + fog) are not frequent today. Since 1965 as a result of changes in fuel usage and the introduction of clean air legislation, they have become less severe. It is quite natural that in fine, still weather there is occasionally haze in summer and mist and fog in winter.

The amount of rainfall in Britain is exaggerated, too. Britain seems to have a great deal of rain because there are so many showers. But usually very little rain falls at a time. Often the rain is hardly more than floating mist in which you can hardly get wet. Although a period of as long as three weeks without rain is exceptional in Britain.

It is no wonder that, living in such an unbearable climate with so many rules and with still more exceptions, the Englishmen talk about their weather, whatever it may be, and their climate, too.

Political system of US

While it would be an overstatement to suggest that the average American has a clear concept of meaning of federalism in 1994, there is some evidence than issues, involving locus of governmental power are important to many. For example, polling organizations frequently ask citizens - which level of government most enjoys their trust and confidence. The results consistently indicate, that people trust their local governments most and their national government least. The states drift along in the middle. So, most Americans view local government the most favorably.

However, as is the case in most areas of our political life, attitudes change significantly when citizens are faced with specific issues. Even though Americans appear to be committed to federalism in the abstract, they always seem to have lengthy list of problems which they want the federal government because state and local governments have failed to resolve them, or a list of services which are perceived as poorly provided or not provided at all. It is common for individuals and groups to respond to such perceptions by demanding that the national government create new standards or mandates or provide direct or indirect expenditures of money. Sometimes, they seek both.

While it is traditional to expect demands for increased national government activity from more liberal, so-called “big government”, elements in American society, conservatives, who see themselves as a defenders of state’s rights and local self-government also may jump on the bandwagon and demand national action. Thus it is quite unsurprising that recently liberal elements in American society have sought national legislation controlling access to firearms, as reflected in recently-adopted Brady Bill, which requires dealers to run checks on purchasers. On the other hand, it seems unusual, from a federalism perspective, that conservative elements have sought national government action to eliminate or restrict access to abortions or to permit the introduction of prayers in the public schools.

Perhaps the best recent example of such a demand for national action may be found in public safety area. There is a general perception, that high levels of criminal activity made the persons and property of the average citizen in this country unsafe. In general, however, the definition and control of criminal behavior has historically been a state and local responsibility. Our national officials sense that there is a demand for them to do something in response to state and local failures. The result is anti-crime legislation at the national level which has been proposed by the President and which is largely supported by members of Congress. While many of us doubt the effectiveness of the specific legislation, few people have seriously objected to this activity as destructive of basic fabric of our federal system.

The result is an inconsistent and often confusing approach to solving governmental problems in a federalist concept. In terms of practical politics, the system provides multiple forms of access. Various groups, no matter what ideological view of the federal system, take a pragmatic approach. That is, when their preferred level of government fails to produce policy results, that are satisfactory, they seek action at another level. None of the models of the federal systems seems to describe this state of affairs very well.

There is also confusion about federalism at another level in the US. We often observe this best when trying to teach about the system in our American Government classes. For some, federalism is equated with democracy. This is to say that they believe that unitary systems are by definition undemocratic. These patriotic souls are skeptical of evidence which demonstrates that some unitary systems are quite democratic, and that some federal systems are quite autocratic in nature.

Still, others confuse federalism with the concepts of separation of powers and checks and balances which are so important in understanding American government. While federalism does indeed divide governmental powers and involve some checking and balancing, separation of powers is a term, normally reserved to discussions of the relations between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of our governments. This distinction is troublesome for many of our students.

Due to my limited time I would like to state some most nuisance problems, that became a heavy burden for every American, involved in active politics in any way. First, we should mention the so-called “unfunded mandate”, that became the biggest bone of contention in American intergovernmental rules. An unfunded mandate can be said to exist when the national government requires new or improved services or level of regulation, but leaves funding largely to state and local governments. This permits national level officials and institutions to establish their own policy without any considering costs. While that seems a poor way to operate, it fits in well with some traditional American political attitudes in which costs of government services are either ignored or assumed to be borne by someone else.

About Great Russian Cities

Великие русские города

Arkhangelsk was the chief Russian seaport from its founding (1584) as Novo-Kholmogory until the building of the Baltic port of Saint Petersburg in 1703. It received its present name in 1613. The city declined in the 18th century, but trade revived at the end of the 19th century, when a railroad to Moscow was completed. During World Wars I and II Arkhangel-sk was a major port of entry for Allied aid. The city resisted Bolshevik rule during 1918-20 and was a stronghold of the White Army, supported by Allied forces.

Blagoveshchensk, city in far eastern Russia and capital of Amur Oblast. Located at the confluence of the Amur and Zeya rivers, Blagoveshchensk lies on the border of Russia and China. Its river port promoted the development of the shipbuilding and ship repair industries. Its proximity to deposits of important natural resources stimulated the growth of the production of equipment for the coal and gold mining industries. Other firms produce electrical equipment, paper, furniture, clothes, alcoholic beverages, and meat products. Dairy and milling are also important aspects of the economy. Blagoveshchensk serves an important transportation role in the regional economy; in addition to its river port, the city is the final station on a railroad spur from the Trans-Siberian Railway. The city has numerous educational institutions, including schools of agriculture, teaching, and medicine. The city also has theaters for drama and puppetry and a museum of regional history. Blagoveshchensk was founded in 1856 as a military outpost at the mouth of the Zeya River. The city was constructed with wide, tree-lined streets; recent urban development has emphasized zones with large apartment complexes outside of the city center.

Irkutsk, city, southern Siberian Russia, capital of Irkutsk Oblast, at the confluence of the Irkut and Angara rivers. It is a major industrial and commercial center served by the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Manufactures include aircraft, motor vehicles, textiles, building materials, mining equipment, and leather goods. A large hydroelectric facility is here. A regional cultural center, the city has history and art museums, theaters, a symphony orchestra, and several institutions of higher learning, including a university.

Irkutsk was founded in 1652 as a cossack outpost and developed as a fur- and gold-trading center on the route to Mongolia and China; it was also used by the Russian government as a place of exile. Industrialization accelerated after the coming of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in 1898.

Kaliningrad, formerly Kцnigsberg, city, western Russia, on the Pregolya River. The capital of Kaliningrad Oblast, it is a major industrial and commercial center, connected by channel with Baltiysk, an ice-free port on the Baltic Sea. Among its principal manufactures are ships, machinery, chemicals, paper, and lumber. Historic landmarks in Kaliningrad include the Schloss, or Castle (1255), and a cathedral (14th century). The German philosopher Immanuel Kant, a native of the city, taught at its university (now Kaliningrad State University), which was established in 1544.

The city, founded in 1255 as a fortress by the Teutonic Knights, became a member of the Hanseatic League in 1340. From 1457 to 1525 it was the official seat of the grand master of the Teutonic Knights, and from 1525 to (1618) it was the residence of the dukes of Prussia. Frederick I was crowned as the first king of Prussia in the chapel of the Schloss in 1701. During World War I (1914-18) the city was the scene of heavy fighting between the Germans and the Russians. Following the war it was made the capital of the German province of East Prussia. The city was severely damaged in World War II (1945-45), and in 1945, after a two-month siege, it was occupied by Soviet troops. By agreement among the Allies at the Potsdam Conference (1945) the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) annexed the city and surrounding territory. In 1946 the city's name was changed from Kцnigsberg to Kaliningrad, in honor of the Soviet leader M. I. Kalinin.

Kazan, city in central European Russia, capital of the republic of Tatarstan, and a port at the confluence of the Volga and Kazanka rivers. Kazan- is a major industrial, commercial, and cultural center. Manufactured products include machinery, refined petroleum, chemicals, building materials, processed food, footwear, soap, and textiles. Once a prominent Muslim city, Kazan remains a center of Tatar culture (see Tatars). It is the site of Kazan State University (founded in 1804), where Leo Tolstoy and Vladimir Ilich Lenin studied, and several technical schools. Notable structures include the kremlin (citadel), the oldest part of which dates from the 15th century; a 16th-century church; and two 18th-century mosques.

Kazan was founded in the late 14th century and soon became the capital of a powerful Tatar khanate. In 1552 the city was annexed by Russia under Ivan IV Vasilyevich. It was largely destroyed in 1774 during a revolt by troops under the leadership of the cossack soldier Yemelyan Pugachov, but was rebuilt soon thereafter, during the reign of Catherine the Great.

Murmansk, city, northwestern Russia, the largest city in the world north of the Arctic Circle. Situated on Kola Inlet, an arm of the Barents Sea, the city is an important port with an ice-free harbor. It is the capital of Murmansk Oblast. Murmansk is a Russian naval base and has major shipbuilding and fish-processing facilities. It is the seat of institutes of oceanography and polar research.

Murmansk was founded in 1915, during World War I, as a port of entry for Allied supplies after Russian ports on the Black and Baltic seas had been closed. In 1916 it was linked by rail with Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg). After the Russian Revolution, an Allied force briefly occupied Murmansk, and it was an Allied port of entry in World War II (1939-45).

Nizhnevartovsk, city in northeastern Russia, in western Siberia. Nizhnevartovsk is part of Khantia-Mansia, an autonomous okrug within Tyumen- Oblast, and is located along the Ob- River. The city grew in economic importance in the 1970s as a service center for the local oil industry. The Samotlar oil basin, an important source of oil, is located in the region, and oil and natural gas pipelines cross the city. Additional industry in the city includes timber, construction materials, and food. Transportation to the city is limited, although there is a railroad station. There is a regional history museum in Nizhnevartovsk.

During the time of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Soviet central planners concentrated resources in several cities, including Nizhnevartovsk and Surgut, to promote the growth of the Siberian oil industry. The labor intensive nature of oil production during the Soviet period spurred dramatic population growth in the city. In 1970, prior to the birth of the industry, the population of the city was only 16,000. By the end of the decade the city had grown to 109,000, and by the end of the 1980s the city had again more than doubled, to 242,000. By 1979 the city had grown to more than three times the size Soviet planners had expected, causing serious housing and infrastructure shortages. The population of the city is currently declining, most likely due to economic difficulties in the oil industry.

Nizhniy Novgorod, city in western Russia, at the confluence of the Oka and Volga rivers. Nizhniy Novgorod is a major river port, railroad hub, and industrial center. The city is the site of one of the largest automobile factories in Russia, and its manufactures also include aircraft, textiles, and railroad and electric equipment. Nizhniy Novgorod has libraries, museums, a large university, and several technical schools. Historical structures include a stone kremlin (citadel) built in the 13th century, two 13th-century churches, and a 17th-century palace. Nizhniy Novgorod was founded in 1221. In the late 14th century the city was plundered by the Tatars before being annexed by Moscow in 1392. Important for its trade with Asia, the city became famous for its trade fairs, held annually from 1817 until 1917. From 1932 to 1991 it was named Gorkiy (also spelled Gorky or Gorki) in honor of the Russian writer Maksim Gorkiy, who was born in the city.

Novgorod, city, capital of Novgorod Oblast, western Russia, on the Volkhov River, near Lake Il-men-. It is the commercial center for a rich farm region, and industries here produce fertilizer, processed food, furniture, and china. Novgorod retains examples of early Russian architecture, including a kremlin (citadel) and the Cathedral of Saint Sophia (both 11th century).

One of the oldest cities in Russia, Novgorod was founded as early as the 5th or 6th century. Rurik, founder of the Russian monarchy, became prince of Novgorod in 862. In 1136 the city achieved independence from Kyyiv (Kiev) and, with a democratic form of government, became the capital of sovereign Great Novgorod. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Novgorod flourished as a trade outpost of the Hanseatic League and was a major cultural center. It repulsed Tatar invasions in the late 13th century. In 1478 the city was annexed by its rival, Moscow, under Ivan III. The city declined as a trading center after the establishment of nearby Saint Petersburg in 1703. During the German occupation (1941-44) of World War II, the city was severely damaged.

Rostov-na-Donu, also Rostov-on-Don, or Rostov, city, southwestern European Russia, capital of Rostov Oblast. Situated on a high bank of the Don River near its mouth on the Sea of Azov, the city is an important commercial, industrial, and transportation center. It is connected by a deepwater canal to the Sea of Azov, and by the Volga-Don Canal to the Caspian, Baltic, and White seas. The city is also linked by pipeline with the petroleum fields of the Caucasus region. Manufactures include ships, chemicals, agricultural machinery, electric equipment, and building materials. Several institutions of higher learning, including a university, are in Rostov-na-Donu.

In 1749 a customs office was established on the site of present-day Rostov-na-Donu. A fortress was built here in 1761, and in 1797 the settlement achieved city status. In the 19th century it grew as an important trading port. During World War II the city was held twice (1941, 1942-1943) by German forces and was damaged considerably.

Saransk, city in central European Russia, capital of the republic of Mordovia. Saransk is located along the Insar River in the Volga River basin, about 630 km (about 390 mi) east of Moscow. Industrial activity in Saransk includes the production of electrical cables, chemicals, decorative cloth, and food products; machine building, and metalworking. The city also has two thermal power stations. Saransk has had a train station since 1893, currently located on the Rusaevka-Kazan - rail route, and is located along a highway. Saransk has many historic architectural sites stemming from its early settlement in 1641 as a fortress for the southeastern border of the Russian State. Soviet planners reconstructed the old city center in the 1960s and 1970s, adding wide streets and planning the construction of massive residential areas. Saransk has several theaters: a drama theater (founded in 1961), a puppet theater, and a comedy theater. It also has a regional history museum and a museum of painting. The Mordovian State University (founded in 1957) is located in Saransk as well as several technical schools.

Stavropol, city in southern European Russia, capital of Stavropol - Territory (Kray), in an area known as Caucasia. Since the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1991, Stavropol - has attracted many refugees from neighboring regions as a result of political and economic chaos and armed conflict near Russia's borders. The city's economy is concentrated on heavy industry; it has factories that produce automobiles, cranes, furniture, and reinforced concrete. Light industry is also represented with the production of shoes and dairy products. Stavropol - has air, rail (the Kavkazskaya-Divnoe-Elista rail line), and highway connections to other major cities. It is also linked by bus routes within northern Caucasia. Buses provide important linkages because of the mountainous nature of the area. The city has technical-training institutes for medicine, education, art, and construction. The city was founded in 1777 as a fort for the Russian army. It was established as a city in 1785, and in 1822 became the center of the North Caucasus Territory. From 1935 to 1943 it was known as Voroshilovsk.

Syktyvkar, city in northern Russia, capital of Komi republic, Syktyvkar is located along the Sysola River near its confluence with the Vychegda River about 1200 km (about 744 mi) northeast of Moscow. Since the 1960s, the city's economy has focused on the timber industry and includes the production of cellulose, paper, and wood furniture. Additional industry includes the food industry (flour milling, meat, and dairy), light industry (leather shoes, textiles), and construction materials. Lying outside Russia's power network, Syktyvkar has a thermal power plant to serve its energy needs. Because of its extreme northerly location the city has few transportation links; it is, however, the final station on a rail spur from the city of Mikun-. Syktyvkar University (founded in 1972) is located in the city and there are several training institutes for the cellulose industry and the fields of medicine, music, and education. The city has a drama theater and two museums. Syktyvkar was settled as Ust--Sysol-sk in 1586 and was named Syktyvkar in 1930. Most likely due to its extreme northerly location and restructuring in the cellulose industry, the city is one of many in the far north that have lost population since the breakup of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Volgograd, formerly Stalingrad, city, capital of Volgograd Oblast, southwestern Russia, on the Volga River. Volgograd, an important industrial, commercial, and transshipment center of Russia, is a railroad hub and a major Volga River port. It is linked to the Don River by the Volga-Don Canal, constructed between 1950 and 1957. A large hydroelectric power dam is just north of the city. Among the main industries in Volgograd are petroleum refining, shipbuilding, and the manufacture of aluminum, chemicals, processed food, farm machinery, iron and steel, and forest products. The University of Volgograd (1980) is located in the city.

Volgograd was founded in 1589 as Tsaritsyn, a fortress on the southeastern frontier of Russia. It was taken by cossack rebels twice: in 1670 by Stenka Razin and in 1774 by Yemelyan Pugachov. With the expansion of the Russian Empire in the 19th century, Tsaritsyn became an important port for products shipped down the Volga River. Early in the Russian Revolution, in 1917, the city was taken by the Bolsheviks. During the civil war that followed it was occupied by White Russian troops for three months in 1919. In 1925 the city was renamed Stalingrad, for Joseph Stalin, who had been notable in the defense of the city against the White Russians.

During World War II, Stalingrad, a strategically located industrial center, was a vital German objective. A large German force mounted an assault on the city on August 20, 1942, after a period of heavy air raids. A successful Soviet counteroffensive began on November 19, and on February 2, 1943, the Sixth German Army surrendered, thus ending the German advance into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). German casualties alone totaled more than 300,000, and the Soviet city was almost completely destroyed. Reconstruction began immediately after the war. The city was renamed Volgograd in 1961.

Yaroslavl, industrial city, capital of Yaroslavl- Oblast, central European Russia, port and railroad center on the Volga River. Manufactures include refined petroleum, motor vehicles, chemicals, synthetic rubber, machinery, processed food, and textiles. Points of interest in the city include a 13th-century church and monastery and three 17th-century churches containing noteworthy frescoes. Also noteworthy is Yaroslavl- University (1971), which has faculties in the physical and social sciences.

According to tradition, Yaroslavl was founded in the early 11th century by Russian ruler Yaroslav the Wise of Kyyiv. From 1218 to 1463, when it was absorbed by Moscow, Yaroslavl- was the seat of an independent principality. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was an important commercial city on the route between Moscow and Arkhangelsk. Commerce declined in the 18th century, and the city became known for the manufacture of textiles. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Yaroslavl was developed as a center of heavy industry.

Yekaterinburg, formerly Sverdlovsk, city, capital of Yekaterinburg Oblast, Russia, on the Iset River. Located on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains in a mineral-rich region, Yekaterinburg is a major industrial center and a station on the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Among the large industrial works located in the city are platinum refineries, copper and iron smelters, and factories producing electrical equipment, chemicals, and heavy machinery. Yekaterinburg's educational institutes include the Urals A. M. Gorkiy State University (1920) and the Yekaterinburg State Medical Institute (1931).

The city was founded in 1721 by Czar Peter I as an ironworking center and was named Yekaterinburg for his wife, who was later proclaimed Empress Catherine I. Industrial development was spurred by the construction of the Great Siberian Highway in the late 18th century and the Trans-Siberian Railroad in the late 19th century. Czar Nicholas II and his family were held captive in the city by the Bolsheviks after the Russian Revolution and were executed here in 1918. The city was renamed Sverdlovsk in 1924 in honor of Bolshevik and Soviet leader Yakov M. Sverdlov. During World War II (1939-1945) industry from threatened European areas of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was transferred here. Following the disintegration of the USSR at the end of 1991, the city's name was changed back to Yekaterinburg.

How to spend summer holidays?

Which is the best way to spend your summer holidays?

Well, I guess there exists a great number of different ways of spending summer holidays... But each person has his own preferences, so everyone likes the only way.

I think that there are two ways of spending your holidays - active and passive. The passive way means staying in the sun, for example, and enjoying doing nothing, and the active - quite opposite: going boating or hiking, trying yourself in different kinds of water sports...

I think I can describe myself as a home-sitting person - I’d usually prefer staying at home near the TV set in an armchair than going on a cruise, or hiking, or whatever. But, after I tried jet-ski and windsurfing this summer I have changed my point of view at the holidays. To enjoy the speed of jetski is much more exciting rather than to take a sunbath!

Well, maybe the conclusion would be is that since time passes a person may be bored of each time the same type of holidays, as it happend to me this summer. But holidays are great in all their metamorphoses!!